Thus, differences in task performance between conditions could not be attributed to individual differences in neuroticism. In order to investigate moderation by neuroticism, we used neuroticism as a continuous variable rather than subdivide participants into smaller groups e.
This latter approach would be inappropriate for a number of reasons, including our relatively small sample size and the fact that median splits are generally not appropriate for measures that are truly normally distributed such as neuroticism in the current study.
In summarizing the issues with median splits, Aiken and West , p. Thus, neuroticism was entered as a continuous variable, which utilizes every score and allows the investigation of both main effects and interactions involving neuroticism. When an effect involving neuroticism emerged, we examined estimates 1 SD above and below the mean to interpret that effect i.
This is a standard analysis used in individual differences research in psychology Aiken and West, ; Norris et al. This analysis allows for the examination of main effects and the interaction between condition and trial time holding neuroticism constant, as well as investigating the main effect of neuroticism and its interactions with all other variables. A similar GLM was conducted on accuracy scores. To better understand this interaction, we examined accuracy estimates at 1 SD above and below the mean neuroticism score; this is standard parameter estimation for linear models Aiken and West, ; Rutherford, Thus, the accuracy results provide support for Hypothesis 1b.
The interaction between condition, trial type and neuroticism in Study 1. This is a novel and important finding, suggesting that individuals who are merely initiating a meditation practice may reap benefits after a single brief session. As such, it redefines the boundary conditions of the efficacy of meditation practice, which has predominantly been studied with longer courses of meditation training.
Interestingly, this meditation-induced improvement in performance was most pronounced in individuals lower in neuroticism; individuals higher in neuroticism did not exhibit any performance boost following meditation Hypothesis 1b. Neuroticism may thus prevent individuals from reaping the benefits of an initial, brief meditation. Importantly, we do not make any inferences about the quality of the state experienced by participant in the mindfulness meditation condition and acknowledge that it may differ from a mindful state that can be achieved after a longer meditation practice.
Nevertheless, the results show that following typical mindfulness meditation instructions—similar to those that begin any MBSR course—has a significant effect on performance. Given the novelty of the findings, we sought to conceptually replicate results from Study 1 in a new sample and using a different albeit related task. The ANT was chosen for a number of reasons. First, the ANT includes a traditional Flanker task embedded in an attention-cuing task.
Thus, the ANT allowed for a conceptual replication rather than a direct replication, thereby increasing reliability of the results from Study 1. In addition, the attentional cues allow for the exploration of other attention systems i. Finally, the ANT has previously been used extensively with electrocortical measures in the past e.
We employed the ANT to allow for a replication of results from Study 1; specifically, that following a brief meditation tape, participants would show better performance on a test of executive control. Thus, we focus on measures related to the executive control network i.
Further, we collected event-related brain potentials ERPs to allow for a preliminary investigation of the neural mechanism s underlying the effects of meditation on attention.
In particular, we predicted that the frontal N2, an ERP component enhanced during shifts in attention Hietanen et al. Specifically, we predicted that participants who listened to the meditation tape would exhibit an enhanced i. Furthermore, the posterior P3b, a component associated with attention allocation Polich, , has also previously been shown to be impacted by meditation in experienced practitioners Delgado-Pastor et al.
We predicted that the P3b may also be impacted by brief meditation, such that participants who listened to the meditation tape would exhibit an enhanced i. These two findings would support our hypothesis that brief meditation may improve both conflict detection N2 and allocation of attentional resources P3b on the ANT.
Furthermore, we sought to examine whether individual differences in neuroticism might moderate these effects. The primary aims of Study 2 were: a to provide a conceptual replication of results from Study 1 showing that a brief meditation can improve attention, particularly for individuals lower in neuroticism, and b to explore the possible neural mechanism s underlying these effects. To do this, we used the same general design from Study 1, except that participants completed the ANT instead of the Flanker task to allow for a conceptual replication of Study 1, and we collected continuous electroencephalography EEG during the procedure.
Thus, our hypotheses for Study 2 were:. Hypothesis 2b conceptual replication : individual differences in neuroticism will moderate this effect, such that individuals higher in neuroticism will not show as strong an improvement in executive attention following a brief mindfulness meditation as those lower in neuroticism. Hypothesis 3: attention-related ERP components, specifically the N2 and the P3b, will reflect the interaction between neuroticism and executive attention, such that individuals lower in neuroticism will show a greater improvement in attention toward incongruent vs.
Similarly to Study 1, upon arriving at the ERP laboratory at Swarthmore College, participants were told that they would be listening to a tape and wearing a blindfold to minimize distraction. After providing informed consent, they were seated in front of a desktop computer and were given oral and visual instructions on how to complete the ANT Fan et al.
Participants completed 24 practice trials with feedback and were given the opportunity to ask clarification questions about the task before continuing. Instructions and practice trials occurred before the experimental manipulation to guarantee that any observed effects on the ANT were due directly to the manipulation rather than any effect of the manipulation on task learning.
Similarly to Study 1, participants were blindfolded and the experimenter left the room while participants listened to the audio tape, which was delivered through two Logitech desktop computer speakers. The participant then completed the entirety of the ANT see below for details. Following completion of the ANT, the experimenter removed the electrode net and participants completed the Big 5 Personality Inventory Goldberg, and a standard demographics survey see Study 1. As in Study 1, participants were randomly assigned to listen to either a min guided audio meditation tape meditation or a min audio control tape control.
The ANT was programed in E-prime version 2. First, the ANT includes three trial types: in addition to congruent i. Second, the ANT displays the Flanker array either above or below a central fixation cross. Third, the ANT includes an additional cueing factor, in which the appearance of the Flanker array is preceded by a central cue i.
Spatial cues always indicated the location of the Flanker array. These differences allow for the calculation of different types of attention, including alerting, orienting, and executive control Fan et al.
Note that given our primary interest in replicating results from Study 1, as well as research suggesting that the three attentional networks i. A Cue types. B Flanker conditions. C Schematic of trial structure. A fixation cross was presented in the center of the screen throughout the experiment. Next, a cue appeared except on no cue trials for ms, followed by an additional ms of fixation. Then, the Flanker array appeared, either above or below the fixation cross.
The Flanker array remained on the screen until the participant responded or until ms had passed, whichever was of shorter duration. After the Flanker array, a period of fixation was generated such that the total duration of each trial was ms. Participants were given breaks between blocks to rest. Following the ANT, the electrode net was removed and participants completed the Big 5 Personality Inventory Goldberg, , a self-report survey consisting of items designed to measure five personality factors 20 items per factor : Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Intellect, Emotional Stability i.
Describe yourself as you see yourself at the present time, not as you wish to be in the future. Describe yourself as you are generally or typically, as compared with other persons you know of the same sex and of roughly the same age.
For each trait, please click on the box that most accurately describes you. We were primarily interested in the Emotional Stability subscale i. Responses were averaged across all 20 items and z -scored for inclusion in analyses. It is worth noting that we did use different scales to measure neuroticism in Study 1 and Study 2.
This was primarily due to time constraints in Study 1; the scale used in Study 2 Goldberg, contains more items, and may therefore have better reliability. Although most measures of neuroticism are highly correlated, we mention the use of different scales as it may explain any potential differences in results. Finally, participants completed a funneled debriefing interview similar to that from Study 1. Before each experimental session, the net was soaked in a saline solution for 5 min to saturate the sponges with a conductive fluid and allow for the recording of EEG from the scalp without direct contact.
The online sampling rate was Hz. The net was placed on the scalp according to guidelines established by EGI Inc. EGI uses a Cartesian coordinate system with X, Y and Z dimensions to specify sensor positions in 3D space on the scalp surface; the International System equivalents have been established previously to simplify comparisons across studies Luu and Ferree, Position of the net was checked to verify proper location of sensors before the experimenter tested signal impedances.
Impedances were checked and fixed during breaks, although contact with participants was kept minimal to minimize potential interference with the manipulation. After data collection, raw EEG was filtered with a 0. The continuous EEG was segmented based on the time at which the Flanker array appeared in each trial; the segment window was ms pre-Flanker to ms post-Flanker. Segments were subjected to a baseline correction to the first ms of the epoch i.
The segments were then run through an automatic bad channel replacement tool, which replaced the bad channels with interpolated data from surrounding channels using spherical splines. If an ocular artifact was detected within a segment, it was statistically removed see www.
The segments were then run through the artifact detection and bad channel replacement tools again. This procedure allowed us to keep trials with eye blinks, although it did not remove the variance from blinks in non-eye channels.
For the current study, we focused on ERPs time-locked to the onset of the Flanker array and thus collapsed average waveforms across the cue condition, resulting in a final two averages per participant: congruent and incongruent see below for more information. We again conducted independent samples t -tests to examine any differences between conditions brief meditation vs.
It is worth noting that applying a Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons to these nine t -tests would require a p -value of 0. Means SDs for participants randomly assigned to listen to the meditation tape and the control tape in Study 2. To simplify analyses and focus on the effects of brief meditation on executive attentional processes i.
We used raw scores rather than difference scores e. This effect was not qualified by an interaction with trial type, suggesting that meditation may facilitate RTs in general.
In a second analysis, accuracy rates i. No other effects were significant. To further probe the effects of meditation on executive attention, we calculated difference scores in RTs on correct trials incongruent—congruent and accuracy congruent—incongruent , separately. Thus, the RT results provide support for Hypothesis 2a, and therefore constitute a conceptual replication of results from Study 1.
For simplicity, only those effects concerning neuroticism are reported i. This pattern suggests that meditation did have a different effect on correct RTs for individuals lower and higher in neuroticism; therefore, we examined pairwise comparisons for the neuroticism x condition interaction. In sum, meditation did reduce RTs, but more so for individuals lower in neuroticism. The interaction between neuroticism and condition in response times RTs on correct trials in Study 2.
Individuals lower in neuroticism who listened to a meditation tape were faster on correct trials than were those who listened to a control tape. Individuals in the meditation group were faster on correct trials than were those in the control group; but only for those individuals lower in neuroticism. A similar GLM conducted on accuracy rates merely revealed the main effect of trial type reported above; no effects involving neuroticism were significant.
Thus, the RT results provide support for Hypothesis 2b, and therefore constitute a conceptual replication of results from Study 1. We focused on two event-related brain potentials in Study 2, based on previous research Kopp et al.
Measurement windows were determined based on these earlier studies. First, we measured the simple peak amplitude of the N2, a negative-going component occurring at approximately ms post-stimulus, as the most negative value occurring at site Fz midline frontal between ms and ms post-Flanker array.
Second, we defined the mean amplitude of the P3b, a positive-going component occurring between ms and ms post-stimulus, as the average voltage during that time window at site Pz midline parietal; Luck, Grand averaged waveforms at A Fz and B Pz. The solid vertical line indicates the onset of the Flanker stimulus; the gray boxes indicate the time window analyzed for the A N2 and B P3b.
This effect, however, was qualified by a number of higher order interactions. Thus, neuroticism and meditation interacted to impact N2 amplitudes on incongruent trials, indicating differential sensitivity to conflict.
In sum, results for the P3b parallel those for the N2 such that in both cases, individuals higher in neuroticism showed reductions on neural indices of attentional allocation on incongruent trials after listening to a brief mindfulness meditation tape.
Results for individuals lower in neuroticism, however, differed for the N2 which indicated improvements on incongruent trials after listening to a meditation tape and the P3b which showed no differences in for the meditation vs. Interestingly, results from both the N2 and the P3b only partially supported Hypothesis 3. The N2 results supported the hypothesis as individuals lower in neuroticism exhibited increased attention, while those higher in neuroticism did not.
However, the P3b results did not show a benefit for individuals lower in neuroticism, and suggested a marginal reduction in individuals high in neuroticism. Finally, we conducted correlations to investigate relationships between the N2 and P3b components of the ERP. This analysis was motivated by a number of factors.
First, the patterns of data observed for the N2 and P3b components in the current study were very similar. Second, this is not surprising, given that much research on cognitive control e. Thus, we examined correlations between the N2 and P3b, as well as the impact of meditation on these relationships. Because of the polarity of these components, this inverse relationship actually indicates a positive relationship, such that larger i.
Second, we conducted correlations separately for the meditation and control conditions. Thus, after listening to the meditation tape, larger N2s indicating enhanced attentional control were associated with larger P3bs indicating enhanced attention allocation ; this pattern was not significant for participants who listened to the control tape.
Individuals who completed a brief meditation had faster correct RTs on the ANT, regardless of trial type, than did those in the control condition, especially when they were relatively lower in neuroticism Hypothesis 2a and 2b.
N2 amplitudes replicated past results, as they were larger to incongruent than to congruent trials. The N2 is implicated in conflict detection and executive attention; larger amplitude N2s are often observed to incongruent conflict than to congruent no conflict trials on multiple paradigms e.
Compared to the control condition, meditation was associated with larger N2 amplitudes to incongruent trials, consistent with the idea that executive attention is enhanced following a brief meditation—but only for individuals lower in neuroticism. Interestingly, the pattern was reversed for individuals higher in neuroticism; for them, meditation was associated with smaller N2 amplitudes to incongruent trials. Given the known role of the N2 in shifting attention, response competition, and executive function Kopp et al.
Individuals higher in neuroticism, on the other hand, might show a detriment in allocation of attention toward more difficult i. Although this was a marginal effect, it could suggest that perhaps the meditation instructions interfered with their ability to efficiently shift attention when needed Hypothesis 3. Results for the P3b also showed an interaction between tape condition, trial type, and neuroticism, such that individuals higher in neuroticism who listened to the meditation tape exhibited a marginally reduced P3b on incongruent trials as compared to those who listened to the control tape.
Although these findings are similar to those for the N2, the difference between them is informative for our understanding of how meditation may impact neural processes underlying attention.
Together, these findings indicate that individuals higher in neuroticism may not benefit from meditation on a task requiring focused executive attention e. Finally, the N2 was correlated with the P3b, primarily for individuals who listened to the meditation tape, indicating that meditation may synergistically impact both earlier control of attention and later attention allocation.
Mindfulness meditation practice is known to affect various psychological outcomes, including cognitive performance and attention. Although the two studies represent conceptual replications of the beneficial effect of brief meditation, results from Study 2 diverge somewhat from those from Study 1. Specifically, results from Study 2 showed that brief meditation improves RTs on correct trials instead of accuracy, and that this performance boost may generalize to all trial types i.
However, considering the differences between the Flanker task used in Study 1 and the ANT used in Study 2 may shed light on this apparent divergence in findings. Most critical is the absence of intertrial intervals in Study 1; as soon as a response was made on one trial, a new trial began.
This had the explicit purpose of decreasing the length of the experiment for participants, but may have increased anxiety, depleted cognitive resources, and increased the need for speeded responses although it did not negatively impact accuracy rates, as can be seen by a comparison of accuracy rates in Study 1 and Study 2.
Indeed, RTs in Study 2 were generally slower than in Study 1, suggesting that participants in Study 1 were forced to respond more quickly. Notably, individuals who had listened to the meditation tape had shorter RTs in Study 2 regardless of condition , suggesting that they were more focused and able to perform the task more quickly.
Of primary interest is that a brief meditation period did affect performance in both studies: when under time pressure in Study 1, participants in the meditation condition showed increased attentional control, as exhibited by better performance on incongruent trials; and when given short breaks between trials in Study 2, participants in the meditation condition showed faster correct RTs overall, regardless of trial type, consistent with the conclusion that they were better able to focus and respond correctly more quickly than those in the control condition.
Thus, a brief guided meditation may improve executive attention, but the manifestation of that improvement may depend strongly on the task being performed. This conclusion is not surprising, given the diversity of findings in the literature on the role of meditation whether long-term or brief, in practitioners or novices on attention, and suggests that more careful delineation of task requirements, underlying processes, and performance measures may be required to further our understanding of this complex relationship and its boundary conditions.
Importantly, across both studies, neuroticism moderated the effects of brief meditation on attentional processes in novices.
Results from both studies indicated that individuals lower in neuroticism exhibited performance boosts following meditation; whereas those higher in neuroticism performed equally well in the control and meditation conditions.
In addition, individuals lower in neuroticism who listened to the meditation tape showed increased N2 amplitudes on incongruent trials, suggesting an improvement in detecting conflict although this was not mirrored in the behavioral data. Neuroticism is characterized by anxiety, high negative affect, worry, and moodiness, and is often associated with self-consciousness, difficulty to control urges, and weakened self-regulation e.
Thus, it seems as though individuals higher in neuroticism may have difficulty reaping the benefits of a brief meditation, possibly due to increased self-awareness and anxiety. The finding that neuroticism moderates the effects of meditation on attention is particularly important because it may explain why prior studies of brief meditation failed to find an effect on cognitive functions Larson et al.
In future studies, measuring and controlling for individual differences in neuroticism may be necessary for uncovering the effects of brief sessions of mindfulness meditation on cognition. Previous research has focused on the reduction of neuroticism, anxiety and stress due to meditation and less on personality predictors e. For example, Williams et al. Similarly, Lane et al. Share This Paper. One Citation. Citation Type. Has PDF. Publication Type. More Filters. The power of musical sound and its implications for primary education in South Africa: An experiential discussion.
In this article, the power of musical sound and its transformative effects on human beings are explored, as perceived since ancient times and discussed in recent literature. An evolving research … Expand. Another NIH-funded researcher reported that mindfulness practices may reduce anxiety and hostility among urban youth and lead to reduced stress, fewer fights and better relationships.
A major benefit of mindfulness is that it encourages you to pay attention to your thoughts, your actions and your body. For example, studies have shown that mindfulness can help people achieve and maintain a healthy weight. Finding time for mindfulness in our culture, however, can be a challenge. We tend to place great value on how much we can do at once and how fast. You can practice mindfulness throughout the day, even while answering e-mails, sitting in traffic or waiting in line.
All you have to do is become more aware—of your breath, of your feet on the ground, of your fingers typing, of the people and voices around you. You can just notice those thoughts and then return to the present moment. It is these little, regular steps that add up and start to create a more mindful, healthy life. Mindfulness for Your Health.
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